1. INTRODUCTION
Energy plays a pervasive and critically important role in the socio-economy
and development of a country. The Sun provides energy that can be captured
in the form of solar power, wind power and hydropower. These alternative
energy, on a world basis, account for approximately 12% of energy consumption.
These sources have the advantage of being inexhaustible and are generally
associated with minimal environmental degradation. However, there is a
need for more R&D for development of efficient technologies, and the public
awareness of the use of renewable energy resources. 1
The total world consumption of energy in 1992 was about 400 exajoules
(or quads) annually. Out of this the developed countries, which are only
10% of the world populations, consumed about 90% of the energy. The United
States alone consumes about 82 exajoules of energy per year. Canada is
the highest per capita energy consumption in the world.1
On the other hand, the demand for energy in developing countries is now
compounded by the economic transition, envisaged in various sectors for
development, where 90% of the world's population growth is taking place.
The average person in developing countries annually uses the equivalent
of one or two barrels of oil of commercial fuel. In contrast, the number
jumps to between 10-30 in Europe and Japan and more than 40 barrels in
the U.S.1
Today, the global fossil fuel depletion is at the rate that is 100,000
times faster than they are being formed.1
In the developing world as a whole, about 2 billion people rely solely
on fuel wood as their energy source for heating and cooking.2
Forest cover in India as per 1999 assessment was 637,293 sq. km and comprises
of 19.39% of geographic area. The geographic area of Manipur is 22,327
sq. km of which forest cover is 17,418 sq. km, and constitutes 78.0 per
cent of the total area. The total forest cover changes from 1993 to 1997
were from 17,621 to 17,418 (sq. km.) in Manipur.
Although, three quarters of the earth area is covered by water, around
97.2 percent is in the oceans. Only 2.8 percent is fresh water, of this
2.38 percent lies frozen in the Polar icecaps and another 0.39 percent
is present as groundwater. A small fraction of 0.02 percent is found as
surface water, and constitutes the fresh water resources of the world.
Air and soil has about 0.001 percent of fresh water. The annual terrestrial
global hydrological cycle represent, 1,00,000 km3 of precipitation over
land; land evapo-transpiration of 60,000 km3, and 40,000 km3 runoff from
land to sea. It is this runoff water of 40,000 km3 that formed the fresh
water resources available to us.2 This runoff
water is used for the production of hydroelectric power.
Water as a renewable resource in hydroelectric generations is tapped,
particularly, in the areas with adequate water potential and steep topography.
These types of geo-environmental conditions are primarily helpful in setting
up of hydropower projects. Hydropower is a clean, renewable, low-cost
alternative to other energy sources, it is flexible and reliable and more
efficient than any other form of electricity generation. Turbines are
capable of converting 90% of available energy, whereas the best of fossil
fuel power plant is efficient only 50%. Another positive aspect of hydropower
is its operational flexibility, its ability to change output quickly and
its unique voltage control load following and peaking capabilities in
hydropower projects help maintain the stability of the electric grid ensuring
economic growth. Hydropower also supports various kinds of aesthetic and
recreational activities. Besides, these projects help to manage floodwaters,
irrigate fields, and provide water supply and harness water potential
as electricity. Hydropower, thus meet the continuous rising demands for
energy in a country.
However recently, the impacts of hydropower projects on the environment
were discovered. In July 1999, the United States Federal Government breached
the Maine's 3.5 MW Edwards dam on the Kennebec River, largely in an effort
to restore the environmental damage caused by the dam over the past 162
years.3 Hydropower projects have been criticised
when adequate attentions were not paid from environmental conservation
point of views. Construction of dams adversely affects the hydrology,
the terrestrial system and the aquatic system of the basin. Large-scale
dam construction has failed sufficiently when taken into account the social
and environmental costs incurred in its wake.4
One of the most critical and contentious issues associated with large
dam projects has been the growing impact on the livelihood, culture, or
indigenous people and ethnic minorities.5
There are raising voices world over against building of large dams. As
a result regulatory bodies are continuously enacting legislation's aimed
at protecting the environment.
At the same time, one should not forget its positive aspects too. Any
of the activities of development would certainly have some negative affects.
But it depend much on our way of planning, level of co-ordination among
project authorities, local government, host communities and R & D institutions
and involvement of these at different stages. If we do this, we might
have far-reaching positive things from hydroelectric projects. However,
the spell of gigantism should be not the first or the preferred direction
but the last option and debate on it.
The present study is conducted to get a public perception on the impact
of the proposed Tipaimukh hydropower projects (Figure 1). The recent MoU
signed between state government officials and the North East Electric
Power Corporation (NEEPCO), concerning the Tipaimukh High Dam project
has allowed the later to conduct a feasibility study to understand the
viability of the project.6 This has facilitated
NEEPCO to received Techno Economic Clearance (TEC) from Central Electricity
Authority (CEA) on 2nd July 2003. Many a renowned persons had written
many articles before, the present article envisage the existing scenarios
nationally and internationally and the merits and demerits of hydroelectric
dam. Though onsite survey has not been performed, it is important for
the civilians and the academicians to know the present international scenarios
of the hydroelectric dam. The impacts of a dam could be of both types:
Positive and Negative.
Click here for a MAP showing the location of Tipaimukh Dam
2. THE ERA OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
Since March 22, 1880, when 16 brush-arc lamps were powered using a water
turbine at the Wolverine Chair Factory in Grand Raphide, MI, hydropower
has played a vital role in fulfilling the world's demands for energy.
On September 30, 1882, the world's first hydroelectric power plant began
operation on the Fox River in Appleton, Wisconsin. The plant, later named
the Appleton Edison Light Company, was initiated by Appleton paper manufacturer
H.F. Rogers, who had been inspired by Thomas Edison's plans for an electricity-producing
station in New York. With financial backing from three Appleton men, one
a personal friend of Edison, Rogers began building the Appleton plant
at his riverside paper mill during the summer of 1882. It could light
only 250 bulbs. Since its advent in 1880, hydroelectricity has seen many
phases of ups and downs. In America, Niagara Falls was the first hydroelectric
power site developed for major power generation and is still a source
of electric power today. 7
The last two decades have witnessed an accelerated pace of dam construction
world over, transforming the earth's landscape and economy of billions
of people. A great majority of large dams have been completed only in
the last 30 years. In 1950, there were 5,196 dams commissioned in the
world. In 1982, there were 35,000, of which 34,798 were over 15 m in height.8
A moderate 54% increase in consumption of hydroelectricity is projected
from 1997 to 2020.9
The first major hydroelectric power plant in India was completed in 1902
at Sivasamundram, an island located in the upper course of the Cauvery
River in South India. The power station initially transmitted 3 MW of
electricity 90 miles to the Kolar Gold Field mine operated by a consortium
of British companies.
In Manipur Loktak Project was commissioned in the year 1983 and produce
105 MW (3 x 35 MW) of electricity. The headrace tunnel is 6.89 km long
with a diameter of 3.81m; the barrage is 58.8m long and 10.7m in heights.
3. HYDROELECTRIC POWER SCENARIOS
3.1 World Scenarios
Hydroelectricity contributes a substantial portion of North America's
electricity supply. In 1997, hydroelectricity accounted for 13.5%, 27%,
and 56% of the total installed capacity in the United States, Mexico,
and Canada, respectively. Canada is the largest producer of hydroelectricity
in the world, closely followed by Mexico and America in the second and
third position, respectively.10
In the United States, hydroelectricity declines slightly because of the
increased in the environment pressure and inclination towards the other
renewable resources as solar energy, nuclear energy, thermal energy, etc.11
It is becoming controversial because of the fear about damaging the environment
and decimating of fish populations. The removal of Edward Dam on Maine's
Kennebec River is an example of this.12 However,
there are approximately 75,000 dams in the United States. The majority
of them are less than 10 feet high, and only 3 percent of them have hydropower
capabilities.
In Canada, 56% of the country's electricity capacity is derived from hydropower
and is expected to increase in the coming years. Large-scale hydroelectric
facilities in Canada are likely to expand, along with several small to
mini-sized hydroelectric projects.13, 9 Chute
Bell Hydroelectric project, a $7.4 million project was completed in 1999
by Hydro Quebec.14
Many countries in Central and South America remain heavily dependent on
hydroelectric power plants for electricity generation. In Brazil 87% of
the installed electricity, capacity is hydropower. For other countries
of the region, hydropower makes up smaller shares of generating capacity,
e.g., 43% in Argentina, 53% in Chile, and 59% in Venezuela. After the
1999 drought, when Chile suffered a major loss of electricity, it has
now moved towards thermal energy. The 1999 drought, a scarcity of water
rights near hydroelectric projects has been factors in the push for diversification.15
Peru, though, has plans to expand its hydroelectric power by constructing
more new projects and repairing the old ones to increase their capacity,
e.g., Cheves hydroelectric project constructed on the Huaura River with
an installed capacity of 525 MW and Machu Picchu hydroelectric project
which is being repaired to increase its capacity to 140 MW.16
Drought has been a major enemy of hydroelectric power projects. Analysts
have depicted the 1999 drought in Latin American countries as the worst
of the century. The lack of water in the Mexican state of Sinaloa left
reservoirs filled to only 13% of capacity, and electricity had to be imported
from the US to accommodate the demand.15
Hydropower accounts for 43,000 MW of Russia's generating capacity, about
1/5th of the country's total capacity.17
In Tajikistan, electric power primarily comes from hydroelectric dams,
which Tajikistan's mountain geography makes possible.18
In Africa and Middle East, Hydroelectricity constitutes a major portion
of the electricity. Hydroelectricity provides the bulk of Egypt's electricity
at present. In 1997, hydropower accounted for about 51% of the country's
total electricity capacity. Three large dams operate at Aswan: the High
Dam (2100 MW), Aswan I (345 MW), and Aswan II (270 MW).19
Today, the dam supplies about one-third of Egypt's electrical power, and
it saved Egypt's rice and cotton crops during the droughts of 1972 and
1973.20 Hydroelectricity and other renewable
resources provide less than 1% of all electricity generation in South
Africa and is making efforts to increase the amount of alternative renewable
energy consumed.21
Much of the developed hydroelectric capacity in the Middle East is in
Turkey and Iran contributing to 45% and 38% to the regional total, respectively.10
Turkey is further developing hydroelectric projects as a part of the $32
billion Southeast Anatolia (GAP) hydroelectric and irrigation project,
which will include 21 dams, 19 hydroelectric plants (27 billion KW), and
a network of tunnels and irrigation canals.22
Iran expects several hydroelectric plants to become operational by 2004,
providing them with additional 5400 MW of electricity.19
3.2 Asian Scenarios
Large-scale hydroelectric projects are still being constructed in developing
Asia. The three Gorges Dam projects in China remains the largest and one
of the most controversial hydroelectric power projects under construction
in the world. Construction of the 18,200 MW project began in 1993, but
it has been in various stages of planning since 1919, when it was first
proposed by the Chinese leader Sun Yat Sen.23
Supporters of the dam argue that it is needed to help control flooding
along the Yangtze river, as well as provide much needed electricity from
a source that does not produce green house gases in comparison to the
fossil fuel which produces the green house gases.
More than 4,800 people were killed in the floods of 1998 and 1999.24
Project advocates expect the dam to produce as much as 85 billion KW of
electricity per year (i.e. 9% of the electricity consumed in China) after
its completion in 2009.13 Opponents of the
dam believe it would cause an irreparable damage to the nature by harming
the indigenous flora and fauna, threatening such species as the endangered
Yangtze River dolphins and several plant and animal species. There are
also concerns about the pollution that may be caused by the dam. Water
pollution along the Yangtze River will double as the dam traps pollutants
from mining operations, factories, and human settlements that used to
be washed out to sea by the strong currents of the river. Further an estimated
1.1 million to 1.9 million people are expected to be displaced due to
the construction of this dam.9
3.3 Indian scenarios
Hydroelectricity in India is already well established. India ranks fifth
in the world in terms of hydropower potential as per a report prepared
by National Hydroelectric Power Corporation of India (NHPC). A vision
paper prepared by the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) on development
of hydroelectric potential envisages harnessing the entire balance hydropower
potential of India by the year 2025-2026.25 Hydroelectric contributes
22% (21,104 MW out of 96,803 MW) of the country's total installed electricity
generating capacity. 9% of the dams in the world are in India. The CEA
assessed the country's aggregate technical feasible of hydro potential
at 94,000 MW.26
There was a rapid increase in dam construction in India during 1951 to
1985, from a total number of 246 major and 1,059 medium River valley projects,
65 major and 626 medium projects were completed. The hydro share in India
has declined from 44% in 1970 to 25% in 199827
Presently, the Indian government has plans to increase the hydroelectric
capacity by 35,490 MW by 2012.16 Twelve large-scale projects are scheduled
for completion by 2002.28 From the environmental
angle submergence of forest by hydel projects can cause a great threat
to biodiversity of the region as has been seen in cases of Idukki and
Periyar projects.29, 30
In Manipur, Tipaimukh HE (Multipurpose) Project (1500MW) is planned at
the junction of Mizoram, Manipur, and Assam. An area of about 390 sq.
km. is proposed for the construction of a rock-filled earthen dam at a
height of 162 m. The site is 500 meters down stream of the confluence
of Tuivai and Barak Rivers (Figure 1).31
According to NEEPCO the dam would affect only eight villages in the two
districts, of which three would be completely submerged, while five would
be partially under water. The project needs clearance at three stages
and can be wound up if found unfeasible32
The main objective of the proposed Tipaimukh dam is to control the fury
of annual flood in Cachar Valley of Assam and power generation for NEEPCO.
Out of the 1500 MW to be generated, the State would be getting a share
of 12 percent.33 The projects affected communities
has welcomed the signing of the memorandum of understanding between the
state of Manipur and the NEEPCO. Thought, the affected communities particularly
the people of Tipaimukh and Nungba, the construction of this dam, they
thought would be fruitful and enhanced developing the backward and neglected
people of the area.34 However, the questioning
of the wisdom behind the proposed Tipaimukh dam has been anticipated from
different voluntary organizations and communities to show the pros and
cons of the dam by undergoing different agitation.35
4. OVERVIEW OF THE IMPACTS OF THE HYDROELECTRIC
PROJECTS
There is a realization that hydroelectric power projects are not as clean
as they were normally considered to be world over. They cause many adverse
environmental and social impacts.36 A major
conflict arises between development and biodiversity conservation when
projects are located in the wilderness area because such projects impact
upon prevailing patterns of allocation of land and resources to people
and interface with various forestry and wildlife conservation objectives.37
Taking India for instance, the man to forest ratio has already become
adverse by a factor of 5 as compared to that in the late 40's, with over
2.5 times rise in human and livestock population and shrinkage of forest
and other wilderness tracts to about half.38
, 39 The implementation of such projects
brings the forests in great pressure, compounding the impacts upon conservation
of flora and fauna. Such indirect impacts have been seen in case of Manathody
hydroelectric project in Wynad.40 Similar
impacts were also visualized in proposed Bodhghat project.40,
41 Sardar Sarovar project in Gujarat, Narmada
Sagar project in M.P., and Tehri Dam project in U.P. have generated much
controversy in the name of environmental degradation and displacement
factor.42 The Silent Valley Project was strongly
opposed and eventually abandoned in the face of the threat it could cause
to the biodiversity of virgin tropical rain forest.41
Dams also alter the social life of the local people, effect indigenous
lifestyle and culture and accelerate the transition to a market economy
centered in big towns. Some 40-80 million people have been physically
displaced by dams worldwide according to the World Commission on Dams
Report released in the year 2000.43
In addition to the losses due to the inundation of villages, towns, and
forests, a large number of trees are also felled in project implementation
to meet the fuel wood requirement of the migrant laborers who are brought
into work in these projects. It has been established that nearly 5 lakh
hectares of forestland have already been destroyed as a result of construction
of various river valley projects in India from 1950 to 1975. 36
The promulgation of Wildlife (Protection) Act,44
Forest (Conservation) Act,45 and the Environment
(Protection) Act46 as well as the National
Forest Policy,47 Guidelines for Hydropower
and Siting of Industry,48 , 49 and Policy
on Hydro Power Development27 laid a firm
policy approach and statutory provision to strengthen the environmental
conservation. Any developmental activity placed under Schedule-I requires
environmental clearance from the Central Government. These include river
valley projects including hydroelectric projects and irrigation projects.
Public hearing meetings in any such activity are mandatory.50
4.1 Positive Impacts of Hydroelectric Projects
The positive impact of damming a river is mainly on the socio-economic
benefit to the host communities, and aesthetic and recreational value
in and around the dam site. Some of the positive impact of the hydroelectric
power projects are as follows:
4.1.1 Hydropower is clean, renewable, low-cost
alternative to other energy sources.
4.1.2 Hydropower can be a true answer to
the question arose due to the continuous rising demands for energy in
the cities, towns and villages.
4.1.3 Hydropower is emission-free and helps
nation meet its clean air goals.
4.1.4 Hydropower in 1997 displaced the equivalent
of burning 143 million tons of coal, 20 million barrels of oil, and 471
billion cubic feet of natural gas combined, preventing the emission of
336 million tons of carbon dioxide.51
4.1.5 Operationally it is flexible: It has
the ability to change output quickly and has the uniqueness in voltage
control. Load following and peaking capabilities in hydropower projects
help maintain the stability of the electric grid ensuring economic growth.
4.1.6 Supports various kinds of aesthetic
and recreational activities, adding to the state income. Opportunities
for camping, hiking, fishing, swimming, picnicking, boating, whitewater
rafting, and water skiing, as well as flood control, irrigation, and numerous
other benefits.
4.1.7 It manages floodwaters, irrigate fields,
and provide water supply and harness water potential as electricity.
4.1.8 Employment: host communities are given
employment for different activities of division of work in hydroelectricity
generation.
4.1.9 Economic Benefits: Lands are either
purchased or negotiated on lease basis either from the government or from
the public depending on the location and situation of the hydropower projects.
In return, particularly the local residents get direct economic benefits
in the form of compensation.
4.1.10 Drought: During the period of drought,
dam usually help by irrigating water for crops.
4.1.11 Water Shortage: If the area of the
storage reservoir is small then there will be no displacement of the localities,
thus no rehabilitation problem will arise due to submergence.
4.1.12 Soil erosion of large watershed system
or river of different structures and topography and complex landscapes
are minimized.
4.1.13 The control of the flow rate gives
the estuary-increased stability due to the reduced possibility of flash
flooding and hence washing away of sediment etc. is eliminated.
According to the reservoir simulation study using the ACRES simulation
(ARSP) downstream of the Tipaimukh reservoir, shows that it would withstand
100-years' floods. In addition, it will assure irrigation through the
canal system, which will bring an era of growth - which is socially, economically
and environmentally sustainable.52
4.2 Negative Impacts of the Hydroelectric power projects
The environmental impacts of hydroelectric power project will of course
vary from case to case. From past experience it is known that all the
consequences and ramifications arising from the damming of a river cannot
really be fully foreseen and planned. Most projects have some common and
inescapable consequences. The environmental impacts caused by the construction
of dams and reservoirs includes:
4.2.1 Physical and chemical environment
(a) Changes in the microclimate: The change in the climatic condition
of the project site. The stilling of flowing waters leading to temperature
stratification.
(b) Landslides and Soil erosion: The project activities leave the eco-impact
features of instability in the form of landslides and soil erosion, violent
disturbance of pristine areas.
(c) Variation in water table: Mostly the water table increased in an around
the dam sites. Varying degrees of submergence of land including forests
in some cases.
(d) Instability of geo-physical landscapes: Changes in the landform of
the project areas.
(e) Siltation and nutrients variation: Eroded soil filled up the reservoir
after some time. Variations in nutrient contents and dissolved oxygen,
rendering the water inhospitable to aquatic life.
(f) Decrease flow-rate of the river downstream: affect aquatic life and
riparian communities, reduced capacity for self-regeneration, reduced
recharge of groundwater aquifers, enhanced pollution levels etc.
(g) Submergence of land: Submergence due to the construction of hydroelectricity
generation is the step through which fragile land topography, many delicate
plants, faunal population and tiny living organisms such as butterflies
have to suffer a great loss. (h) Air Pollution: Construction accelerates
the rate of suspended particulate matter (SPM) and dust.
(i) Solid Waste Problem: As the human activities increase in and around
the sites of hydropower projects, waste products also increase if there
is a lack of adequate infrastructure to deal with.
(j) In the hilly tract, blasting operations for road construction can
cause considerable damage to the environment through loosening of sedimentary
layers and joints of rocks and resultant landslides, sedimentation of
reservoirs, drying up of spring and flash floods etc.
(k) The creation of new settlements for the workmen and rehabilitation
of project outees in the watershed areas may aggravate the seriousness
of advance impacts.42
(l) Seismic activity: Enhanced seismic activities due to pressure of water:
The huge amount of water reservoir cause tremendous pressure to the earth
surface, thus causing earthquakes. Figure 2 shows the seismic map of the
plate boundary region and the Tibetan plateau region, having hazard levels
of the order of 0.25g with prominent highs of the order of 0.35-0.4g in
the seismically active zones of the Burmese arc, Northeastern India and
North-west Himalaya/ Hindukush region and is included in the Zone V.53
A major earthquake rocked Manipur-Myanmar border in the year August 06,
1988 at the epicenter of lat. 25.130 and long 95.150 and at a magnitude
of 6.6 Richter scale.
4.2.2 Biological environment
(a) Loss of vegetal cover: Removal of the plants from the project site,
reduction in biodiversity.
(b) Decrease in the faunal species: The disturbance caused in the nature,
mainly due to excessive noise from blasting and tunneling, etc. affecting
the sensitive habitats of the wildlife in the surrounding areas. Severe
impacts on the fish population in the river.
(c) Deforestation: Cutting of fuel woods for energy and constructions.
(d) Threat to medicinal plants due to submergence, disturbance, destabilization,
and degradation of land. Soil erosion and floods in and around the dam
site has its indirect influence on plants.
4.2.3 Cultural environment
(a) Dislocation of people: Shifting of people from their original village
to another.
(b) Destruction of immovable property: Destruction of houses, farms etc.
4.2.4 Socio-economic environment
(a) Problem of host communities such as compensation, employment, road
construction, drinking water, afforestation to compensate the loss resulted
due to the developmental works.
(b) Public agitations: Due to misunderstanding between the host communities
and the managing authorities cause campaigns and strikes against the authorities
to make agree the project proponents to meet their demands. All these
reactions of resentment ultimately affect the production rates and its
growth, ultimately hampering the growth of the country.
(c) Irrigation from hydropower projects has numerous impacts on forest
and wildlife directly or indirectly, thus affecting the socio-economic
condition of the host communities.
(d) Multi-purpose projects often have only two components, namely, irrigation
and hydroelectric power. The integration of other purposes has not been
a standard feature of project planning.
(e) Project-Affected Persons, with the assistance of NGOs, have become
more conscious of their rights both their fundamental rights as citizens
and their traditional rights of use of river waters, forest produce and
other natural resources.
(f) The Tipaimukh area is ecologically sensitive and topographically fragile.
Some of these negative effects cannot be remedied or even mitigated; and
in some cases efforts at the mitigation of or compensation for environmental
impacts in turn will create further problems.
5. PUBLIC AWARENESS AND PARTICIPATION
The degree of awareness concerning the public hearings among the local
residents of the region should be assessed. Public hearings are now a
statutory requirement in respect of such projects, but this is essentially
in the context of an environmental clearance. The hearings should also
cover the displacement/rehabilitation aspects. A 'rehabilitation clearance'
similar to the environmental clearance should be made a statutory condition
before work on a major hydroelectric project can begin. The 'social costs'
inflicted by projects often fall on poor and disadvantaged sections, particularly
tribal communities, whereas the benefits accrue to others usually more
prosperous people in the command area. Thus, the project authorities should
incur equal distributions systems.
Some state governments have tried to provide project-affected persons
with rights in the command area. Mention may be made of the Madhya Pradesh
Project Affected Persons Resettlement Act 1985; the Maharashtra Project
Affected Persons Rehabilitation Act 1986; and the Karnataka Resettlement
of Project Displaced Persons Act 1987. However, these Acts are on the
statute books and contains some enlightened provisions, it cannot be said
that they have been fully put into practice. Another provisions such as
the collection of a 'betterment levy' from farmers whose lands get the
benefit of irrigation at state expense, or a lower land ceiling for irrigated
land as compared with unirrigated land have remained largely unimplemented.
These are important areas needing attention.
A seminar in Imphal, which had the Manipur Association for Science and
Society (MASS) as an organizer is of the opinion that the proposed Rs.
30 billion Tipaimukh dam needs transparency and a national debate. However,
people especially from affected areas think that the damage to be caused
by construction of this dam is meager considering the huge benefits to
be obtained from the dam. They believe that most of the land to be submerged
are inaccessible, unproductive wasteland, and that no major damage to
flora and fauna are expected. They assumed that apart from generating
electricity, it would supply drinking water, provide irrigation to vast
areas, and control perennial floods. Optimistically, they gather that
big industries can be set up with the surplus power generated, the dam
can boost tourism, water transport will be developed, and people engaged
in Jhum cultivation can turn to fishing in the dam reservoir to enhance
their income.34
6. IMPACT MITIGATION MEASURES
There could be a variety of mitigation measures but to think mainly about
those, which would be wise enough and are fundamental and be capable of
bringing about a change in a satisfactory way at the initial stages need
to be discussed briefly. These measures could be, in essence, as follows:
6.1 Minimizing adverse impacts on forest,
air, water, and flora and fauna: It is very important to the hydropower
project authorities to seek help of the R & D institutions to continuously
verify data on experimental basis. Any of the larger developmental activity
requires a preliminary investigation of the geography and geology.
6.2 The hydropower projects can be strengthened
further as well as developed sustainably if every section of the responsible
groups, such as hydropower project authorities, local government, host
communities, and R & D institutions work in a coordinated way. Only after
this, one can harness the real potential of hydropower projects and strengthen
the nation's economy.
6.3 Seeking public participation and to
strengthen hydropower projects in the region, public involvement etc.
is must. The positive scenario about the public involvement is possible
only after valuing some of the interests of the public by way of searching
a room for a satisfactory representation of jobs for the unemployed. Keeping
in mind of the behavioural problems at the initial stage, the public perception
in regard to upcoming dams and hydropower projects in their host regions
is a must to know.
6.4 Majority of the villagers are not satisfied
with the compensation they received in return to the land acquired by
hydropower projects. This satisfaction level should be re-tested and tallied
with the cost of present day value of land available in revenue records
on behalf of the project authorities.
6.5 Public feelings, aspirations and demands
and views on environmental loss from project proponents also need to be
transparent. However, it is again a fact that these problems might have
been already discussed in 'Public hearing' meetings. But it is again true
what numbers of the public in fact know its consequences at the time when
only the process begins for its environmental clearance. It is the stage
of project when no activity would have been started. So every individual
could not visualise its consequences at this stage completely for future.
Moreover, the representations of the public participating in these meetings
remain very few. So at this time all the people could hardly participate
and therefore could not react so openly.
6.6 The impact on environment and geotectonic
should be taken seriously and urged the government to weigh the national
benefits vis-à-vis the possible impacts of such a big dam on the environment.
As the northeast is a sensitive seismic zone, construction of mini dams,
as an alternative could be more reliable.
6.7 Dam safety: during the events of high
rainfall/floods, storms, earthquake and other emergency incidents, action
should be taken up and be alert to potential developments and maintain
close vigilance during extreme events or perceived abnormal behavior of
the dam. Maintaining of safety requirements at all times during response
actions, and have routine check-up to detect any embankment movement,
slips, and internal or external erosion. Monitoring of weather, wave action
and filling rate inspect for wave damage, overtopping, structural damage,
inspection of dam for overtopping, leakage, erosion or other problems;
inspection of dam immediately after earthquake event is felt/notified
and maintain visual monitoring for 24hrs is strongly recommended.
7. CONCLUSION
Hydropower projects are contributing towards the state as well as national
demands for energy. However, at the level of public interests, these projects
before implementation need some of the modifications in administrative
set ups keeping in mind the expectations of the host communities from
hydropower projects. Modern environmental conservation techniques to keep
up developmental projects sustainable also need to be promoted. There
are definitely some positive aspects of introducing these projects, but
to the host communities it seems there is no direct benefits except very
little compensation. Their prime requirements of getting employment, making
them accessible to irrigation water and investing in local infrastructures
of the region, e.g., schools, colleges etc. are some of the expectations
of the public from the hydropower project authorities.
In regard to seek preventive measures to get control over the environmental
problems arose due to developing the projects in the hilly tracks, afforestation
along with some other sustainable measures on a part of the project authorities
is must. Land conservation, proper disposal of wastes, active role of
regulatory bodies to prevent illegal felling of trees, introducing and
making access of alternative source of fuel energy to the laborers as
well as the villagers are the other important suggestions to be implemented,
if we need for strengthening of the hydropower projects in Tipaimukh region
or similar other mountain environments of the country. Of course, we must
also understand that sustainable development is impossible.
Therefore, if we assume the pursuit of higher 'standards of living', then
we need to go for this project. Thus, instead of apocalyptic forecasts,
it will be more realistic to recognize and go for efficient, economic,
and conservation, so that the benefit derived from the project is maximized
and without compromising the environmental degradations. Another important
aspects while assessing the large geographical area of Tipaimukh watershed
is the remote sensing techniques, which is the most reliable tool. Application
of GIS for computation of composite Runoff Potential units in sub-watershed
of Barak Basin is also recommended.
Thus, before implementing a project it is proper to publish the feasibility
report prepared by any body/bodies to decide the merit and demerit of
the impact and take the public, government and private decisions. Finally,
the decision-makers taking the precise judgment of the entire viewpoints
should go for a dam or no dam.
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* Author will be grateful for any input or suggestion on this article.
Dr. Khwairakpam Gajananda
G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment & Development,
Himachal Unit, Mohal-Kullu,
Himachal Pradesh-175 126. (India)
(An Autonomous Institute of Ministry of Environment & Forest, Govt. of India)
Email: [email protected]
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