Panthera tigris tigris : A case to study

Rahul Ashem *

A Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) in the wild in Ranthambhore National Park, Rajasthan, India
Pix - Bjorn Christian Torrissen / Wikipedia.

The existence of yellow stripped animal is still an issue; surveying is the only possible methods for identifying the presence or absence of tiger habitat from the protected areas/ sanctuaries of Manipur

Manipur is one of the few states in the Indian Sub continent covered with total number of forest blanket. Out of the 22,307 ha area, the state has 17, 418 sq km classified forests with two declared National park (Keibul Lamjao National Park, Sirohi National Park) and four proposals Wildlife Sanctuary (Yangoupokpi WS, Jiri Makru WS, Kailam WS, Zeilad WS) covered a total area of 847.1 sq km spreads in different districts.

The average altitude of the valley is 850 m while maximum altitude of the hilly region is almost reached to 3000 m. Different types of vegetation are confined in different climatic conditions, for maximum survival of flora and fauna in different environmental areas. For example, the State animal, Sangai opted to floating National park of Keibul Lamjao, Bishnupur whereas the State flowers, Siroi lily, in the hilly terrain of Sirohi National park, Ukhrul. Wildlife forms a measure part of the forest ecosystem services and plays a major role in the life cycle of the biosphere environment for better perfection of the nature and natural resources.

The growing of endangered flora (Lilium maglineae sealy, Paris polyphylla, Dendrocalamus brendicii and different colors of orchid species) and fauna (Rucervus eldi eldi, Panthera pardus, Ailuropoda melanoleuca, Prionodon pardicolor) are come to an end due to lack of survey, research or poor maintenance of the surrounding environment (biopiracy).

Fauna survey is an important factors, clarifies for recollection and re recording of animal data like the foot print, paw print, feces, scrapes, rake, shelter or burrows, calls and kill prey of mammals etc. The process helps in confirming occurrence of species through indirect signs and abundance was estimated on the basis of encounter rate (number/km/day) and relative frequency percentage (Johnsingh and Negi 2003 and Singh 2001 2003) of the signs. Herbarium collection is another common method for identification of plant species.

The work is done through collection of endangered plant species from the protected areas for further confirmation and identification. For fauna, both direct and indirect methods are used in identification of wildlife species. Although, direct observation is more preferable methods for identifying mammalian species, in sometimes, non invasive sampling (genotyping) and indirect methods are efficient way of wildlife samples.

Lack of survey helps in increasing increment of deforestation, urbanization and population density result in habitat fragmentation of the protected areas and sanctuaries which leads to extinction of minor to major species in the long term channel. Pangolins, Bear cats, Spotted linsang, Tokey gecko are few examples which are on the verge of extinction.

Tiger population was confirmed till the 80s before the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) declared the 2001 census as extinct large feline from the valley of Manipur. The Sumatran rhinoceros is still believe to be found in New Samtal, Indo Mynamar border, as recorded as extinct due to lack of particular report for the existence (of this herbivore animal). The Sumatran rhinoceros is perhaps the most endangered large mammal in the world with an estimated population of only 300 animals in the wild (Foose and Strein., 1998).

Apart from the widespread and extensive destructions of habitats, direct extermination of many species of wildlife has occurred, due to actions of poaching and hunting. Information on biodiversity including wildlife status, population and community interactions and their contribution to ecosystem development is essential for effective conservation of wildlife and management of protected areas (Basnet., 1998). Such information is developed by regular monitoring records collected from various scientific methods.

Tiger habitat occupancy has become one of the important factors for the survival of ecosystem services as well as to the human environment. Tiger stand at the apex of the food chain, maintained co relationship within the surrounding environment and helps in the population control of the species in that specific environment, automatically helping the mankind in the food chain system. Similarly, tiger presence indicates a good sign of forest ecosystem services.

India listed tiger on schedule 1 as a fully protected species in Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and Appendix 1 of UN convention on CITES (Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna) due to the vulnerability to extinction which was formally recognized in 1969 at the International union for conservation of nature and natural resources (IUCN), world conservation union meeting held in New Delhi. After the meeting, International convention on CITES launched project tiger in 1973.

With the challenging fact of habitat fragmentation, slash and burn cultivation, traditional hunting, poaching or water flow inside the forest environment of Manipur, animal find their own space, thus start the beginning of survival of the fittest. Tiger, at the top of the food chain, is a shy, territorial and nocturnal animal, come to a halt as poachers, hunters or traditional hunters start hunting their ecosystem environment which leads the animal to completely disappear from the protected areas of Manipur or the wildlife sanctuaries.

The census report of 1971 tells the presence of yellow stripped in Manipur by one (1), followed by ten (10) in 1979, six (6) in 1984 and thirty one (31) in 1989. The last census of 2001 shows the absence of tiger habitat from the land of Manipur. Still, the possibility of existence of yellow stripped is an issue for the people of Manipur.

The presence of tiger habitat should be calculated with the division of compartments into small sampling unit as beat. The maximum potential for tiger occupancy can be intensively search from this beat division, since large feline have a tendency of using dirt roads, trails, foot paths, river beds or nullahs. In another term, line transect walk is reliable, as most part of the valley is surrounded by hilly terrains.

There are three (3) methods for estimating the population of tiger habitat, the common most is the pugmark technology followed by camera trapping and scat analysis (genotyping). GIS is another term for guiding and helping tiger habitat in the best possible way. Pugmark identifies identity and it's the simpler and easiest method for identification of animal. Camera trapping, Scat analysis or GIS application are the new advance formula for getting total occupancy in a given forest environment. Pugmarks can be further classified as old, fresh and very fresh in accordance with the presence of pugmark in that particular environment.

Likewise, scats can be differentiated into old (dry with hair and bone visible), fresh (dry but intact with shiny surface) or very fresh (soft, moist and smelly); scent mark (spray, rolling) or rake on trunk, scrapes on ground or even kills prey (predation on wild prey). Similarly, pugmark is also helpful in tracking those animals that are stray away from the boundary areas, conflicting with the human environment or create problems of their own because of injury.

Another alternative method for estimating tiger population is by using track frequency sampling in combination with closed capture recapture models (Sharma et al 2005, Choate et al, 2006), which assumes the identity of all individuals in the population can be determined with certainty from their tracks and that all individuals have an equal chance of being detected (Otis et al, 1978). Capture histories detailing track encounter rates within a limited sampling period can be used to estimate detection probabilities and population size. This approach has yet to be verified except in controlled situation with small numbers of known animals and remains to be rigorously tested under field conditions (Sharma et al, 2005).

Sriyanto cr al (1997) studied status of Javan rhinoceros from track count. Dawson (1990) calculated elephant density of their dung along a transect line. Thomson (1952) and Weaver (1779) showed that the wolf and coyotes could be identified by the measurement of their scat diameter. Many biologists (Sunquist, 1981, Tamang 1982., Mc dougal 1997) used pugmark method to estimate tiger population because it is reliable, easier, cheaper and more precise. Similarly, Fox and Chundawat (1995) evaluated the abundance of snow leopard using their sign in the upper Indus valley. Karanth and Nichols (1998) first developed the camera trapping technology to monitor tiger population in India and it has since used to estimate individually identifiable (Henschel 2001, Trolle and Kerry, 2003, Silver et al, 2004, Heilbrun et al, 2006, Jackson et al, 2006).

The method has been used for estimating tiger abundance and density in the conceptual framework of the mark recapture statistics and has been employed in providing estimates of tiger population in many protected areas in India and elsewhere. However, this method works best only in areas where tigers are in high density, it can sample tigers only in a few predetermined locations where camera traps are set and cannot be used in difficult hilly terrains.

Tiger pugmark are easy to identified as their paw are soft enough and difficult to walk on thorny/ bushy areas, as a result, their pugmarks are clearly seen near fine level roads, trails or near the river beds/stream or lake. Tiger sex can be easily identified from the following figure:

Adult male tiger pugmark (MTP) forms a square while female tiger pugmark (FTP) fits into a rectangle shape. Toes in male are rounded whereas it is fairly elongated in female society. Female pugmark length and breadth is 1.5 cm more than male tiger pugmark. The interesting fact is, tiger cub pugmark (TCP) is much similar with the leopard or wild dogs' pugmark. The difference in wild dogs is summed up as non visible claws; toes are smaller and larger pads in tiger (visible claws, toes larger and pads smaller in dogs).

Digital pugmark technology (DPT) is another new terminology based on the theory of pugmark technology. The method is used for estimating the specific individual species using statistical approach. Each animal leaves a particular set of pugmark while walking. For analysis, the pugmark is clearly photographed in a serial way, GPS (Global Positioning System) locations are taken from the first sight, stride and straddle measurements, where an animal walked in a normal gait. Stride is the distance between two successive pugmarks on the same side while straddle is the perpendicular distance between the left and right hind pugmarks.

The data is then calculated with the help of software "pugmark 1.0" which totally eliminates human error. The data calculates the values of several variables from the photographs. Statistical analysis of the data creates a new profile of the animal, which can be used to identify it from the pugmarks (The technology is already applied in tiger calculation work, not applicable for high rainfall environment). For best result, Pugmark Impression Pads (PIPs) were made where animal frequently walks (roads, trails), for getting the clear mark of pugmarks. PIPs consists of an area approximately 6m long and as wide as the road (nearly 2.5 m) where the soil is finely pulverized to an optimal soil depth of 0.5- 1 cm in order to provide the best possible surface for recording pugmark impressions.

Camera trapping is another methodology for the identification of yellow stripped black flank animal and is based on the principle that stripe patterns on tigers are individual specific. The technology has been used for identifying individual tigers. Individual tigers were classified with their stripe pattern on flanks, limbs, tail and forequarters (Schaller 1967, Karanth 1998) and separated into male female cub or unidentified individuals.

The method has been used for estimating tiger abundance and density in the conceptual framework of the mark recapture statistics and has been employed in providing estimates of tiger population in many protected areas or sanctuaries in India and elsewhere. For camera traps, grids system is necessary or divide the park area into 2.5 * 2 sq km that each area is covered by camera as well as according to the tiger for how many km they can walk. Sign survey helps in this matter, keep distance of 1.5 to 2.5 km between two cameras so that every individual is capture and recapture. However, this methods works only best in areas where tigers are in high density, it can sample tigers only in a few predetermined locations where camera traps are set and cannot be used in difficult hilly terrains.

The last possible method for identifying the presence or absence of tiger habitat is through non invasive methods of collection or simply scat analysis which is done after collecting scat from the field. There are two (2) possible ways of scat preservation, one with help of desiccant silica gel pouches containing 50 ml screw cap tubes and other dipping in 70-90 % ethanol. Drying of scat is necessary when the scat found is very fresh. The work has done successful in population estimation of animal like Wolves, Forest elephant, European badgers, Grizzly bears etc using multi locus micro satellite loci unique to individuals animals. Taberlet and Luikart have recommended that any steady requiring a non invasive method should be preceded by a pilot study to assess the probability of identity P (ID) as well as the feasibility and reliability of the methods before embarking on a large scale.

Most part of the valley is covered by hilly terrain and it is not possible to use the camera trapping technology. Pugmarks techniques and scat analysis must be accurate and easy methods to identify the presence of large feline in the protected areas or sanctuaries. A quick survey must be calculated inside the park and restriction of forest rules is strictly provided, traditional hunting inside the protected areas and cultivation of slash and burn should be totally banned inside the national park for better aspects.

Many endangered species are occurred and need to be protected like the Himalayan black bear, Malayan sun bear, Leopard, Wild dog, Elephant, Gaur, Asiatic black bear, Bison, Serow, Barking deer, Sambar, Hog badgers, Ferret badgers, Pangolins, Bear cats, Spotted linsang, Himalayan yellow throated marten, all come to end if there is lack of survey or poorer maintenance of the protected areas. Tiger is a big example and their habitat should not be end like this....