TODAY -

In Search of Peace in Manipur: A Human Migration Perspective

Dr. Puyam Rakesh *

 A map showing Indo-Myanmar boundary in the territory of Manipur : Pix - TSE
A map showing Indo-Myanmar boundary in the territory of Manipur : Pix - TSE



As part of its evolution, Manipur is today standing at a crossroads to re-define itself. The need of the hour is to build a new society in place of the old one. The transition is a tough job but it is the only way forward. The expected changes due to development of internal contradictions have to be acceptable to one and all. Both the external and internal causes are present. It is the stand of the materialist dialectics. This is the call of history. The status quo must change for the betterment of all.

To cut a long story short, a new Manipur will rise from the fertile minds of the younger generations who could sincerely dream of an inclusive and democratic society. Such a society will put truth, equality and justice as the cornerstones. The emphasis here on these values and principles does not mean lack of the same but acknowledgement of the change and continuity in and around Manipur.

The ongoing social degeneration at all levels is a fact of life. Therefore, turning a blind eye to it will only worsen the sickness. Robust institutions under the guidance of visionary leadership will have to play an important role in undoing a lot of inefficiencies and mistrust and distrust prevailing now. Diplomacy must take the forefront to resolve the situation but preparation for any eventuality is a must.

Moreover, to find answers to the present problems one need to dig deeper in history and cultural milieu of the land. The multi-ethnic and multi-cultural landscape of the society has existed for centuries and the process of knitting the socio-cultural fabric of Manipur has been an ongoing process since antiquity. The process must keep on rolling for the desirable end.

Meantime, the learned minds should guard against negative forces of fear and hatred in order to bring positivity back. In fact, the narratives aiming at setting communities against one another will not take us far. Instead, we can start with the necessary home work to understand the refugee crisis happening in the region with better coordination with the relevant national and international non-state actors and relevant regimes.

Besides, understanding globalization in its entirety including its ill effects can also inform our decisions. The distortions of globalization also have strangulated the impoverished society with detrimental effects on livelihoods, equality, social justice and equity among the various communities. Inequalities and lack of equity are driving wedge among the communities and social fault lines are ever widening.

At this juncture, what can we learn from history? The first lesson we must learn from history is migration of people as a natural phenomenon and the place of Manipur in this broader setting before and after the Treaty of Westphalia 1648. Undoubtedly, Manipur has carved its own place as a destination for migrants and refugees from all four corners of the earth for ages.

A mixture of both intended and unintended naturalization and assimilation processes has been the standard norm. Warfare, de-population and immigration policy were intrinsically linked to statecraft. And Manipur was no exception.

Also, Manipur provides its territorial space to various groups of people for transiting across the vast landmass of Asia. The major driving forces behind these migration stories are conflict, persecution, environmental degradation, and lack of human security and opportunity for growth.

The close historical, racial and cultural relations between Manipur and Myanmar have been a subject of great interest among academicians and activists alike. One such key area of study that requires further research and close attention in the 21st century is human migration and influx of refugees. Myriads of people belonging to different racial and linguistic families have been flowing into Manipur since ancient times. This process still continues.

The corridors of human migration linking Manipur to its neighbours had given birth to the concepts of nongpok haaram and nongchup haaram representing the people coming from the east and west of Manipur. It is clearly recorded in the chronicles and scriptures of the land.

Moreover, the place of Myanmar as the country of origin (also as a transit country in olden days) for hordes of people coming to Manipur and beyond remains a historical fact till date. However, the crux of the matter lies in integration of the migrants into the host society and consequent effects on identity, culture, land and resources of the local communities.

As a matter of fact, the unique identity of Manipur keeps evolving and changing over the ages as new sources of national identity find room in the already existing socio-cultural and political structures and institutions. The constructive and resourceful elements could add to further enrichment and consolidation of the ‘Idea of Manipur’ while rejecting the regressive ideas and forces at the same time. This is the historical responsibility that demands our collective intellectual exercise in full swing.

In this regard, we all must start asking relevant questions relating to ethnic cultural boundaries and the modern states with well-marked boundaries. The endless dialogue between various trans-border ethnic groups and the modern states is a harsh reality in many countries with no end in sight. The case of the Kuki-Zo communities living in India, Myanmar and Bangladesh is one such example.

Having said that, the threat of diluting the identity of Manipur and its historical legacy from within is not just a false alarm. It is the very crux of the matter. Here, India’s refugee policy and national security concerns are worth analyzing. Nevertheless, those who stand for integrity and peaceful co-existence must continue re-imagining Manipur amidst the turmoil.

In the words of Thant Myint-U (2019), a noted historian and author from Myanmar, the crisis in Myanmar is a result of the “failure of imagination” leading to fear and intolerance engulfing the society. The questions of blood and belonging and place of indigenous people (taingyintha) are at the heart of several issues afflicting the Myanmar national imagination.

The same holds true in Manipur today. The issue of indigenous people (yelhoumee) is playing a key role in shaping the current social and political life in Manipur. While the rights and interests of the indigenous people of the soil need to be defended and promoted at all costs the shapers and builders of Manipur also require innovative thinking in terms of building and rebuilding Manipur to adapt and prosper amidst the changing global scenario.

Unfortunately, the very ‘Idea of Manipur’ is struggling today in the face of rising threats from ethno-nationalist projects, refugee problems, distortions of globalization and failure of the state to represent the voices of the people inhabiting the land. Indeed, there are other factors involved.

The present crisis situation in Manipur is closely related to the issue of human migration from south and south-west direction of Manipur. Here, the constituent tribes belonging to a vast family of Kuki-Zo nomenclature have been continuously migrating into Manipur for decades.

Of all, the important reasons for such phenomenon in the past being war, invasion and violent conflicts in Myanmar as warring tribes and clans fight to control land and resources for survival and dominance. This led to waves of migration of the Kuki-Zo cognate tribes from parts of Myanmar and the Chittagong Hill Tracts as powerful tribes and clans pushed away the weaker ones away from their original places of settlement.

Many of these groups of people crossed the Chin Hills (present Chin state of Myanmar) and Lushai Hills (present Mizoram state) to reach Manipur and some spread across Assam and Naga Hills (present day Nagaland). During the reign of King Nar Singh (1844-50) in Manipur several groups of migrating people from Chin Hills and Lushai Hills entered into Manipur and they established permanent settlements in the kingdom under the guidance of the then British political agent Major MacCulloch. Alexander Mackenzie had covered this important subject in his study of the hill tribes of the north-east frontier of Bengal.

After the signing of the Treaty of Yandaboo in 1826, Maharaja Gambhir Singh reigned over the war devasted kingdom of Manipur till his death in January 1834. The loss of population as a consequence of the Seven Years Devastation (1819-1826) had created a positive atmosphere for the new immigration policy encouraging many settlers to take permanent residency in Manipur. Nevertheless, the most important factor was the British government’s policy for defending its frontiers from the Burmese power and controlling the frequent tribal raids into the British realms including Manipur.

Establishing sepoy villages along the southern and south-western parts of the kingdom of Manipur with inhabitants newly arriving from across the borders of Manipur did serve the purpose of defending its realm from further raids and incursions made by hostiles tribes. It was a win-win policy for the parties involved in that historical setting.

At present, the civil war situation in Myanmar, where several ethnic armed organisations have been fighting against the infamous military junta, has created room for the dissenting groups in Manipur to join hands with those operating in Myanmar (and also Bangladesh) to challenge the historically established geopolitical entity called Manipur.

In the name of Zo unification or autonomy, the Kuki-Zo groups have exploited the opportunity provided by history to further their cause at the cost of Manipur. They may have powerful well-wishers and supporters behind their back.

Against this backdrop, the present crisis in Manipur has encouraged many to look at the India-Myanmar-Bangladesh trijunction with renewed interest and enthusiasm. With Arakan Army (AA), the military wing of the United League of Arakan (ULA), successfully defeating the Myanmar Tatmadaw in Rakhine state to establish its authority over several townships, streams of people are coming to India and Bangladesh to escape violence.

Most importantly, the AA has established its control over Paletwa, a key location in Chin state of Myanmar that connects Mizoram state of India with the Sittwe port in Rakhine state where India government has invested millions into the Kaladan multi-modal connectivity project. The Arakan group has provided historical justification for its control over Paletwa against the claims made by the Chin National Front/Chin National Army (CNF/CNA) and other Chin groups.

The ethnic Rakhine (Arakan) constitutes second most important group in demographic composition of Paletwa while the Khumi/Khami Chin people are the dominant group in the region. This socio-political setting has created tensions as well as cooperation between the Chin armed groups and the AA over the control of territory and in their fight against the Myanmar junta.

Meantime, the ethnic Chin armed groups have been fighting against the Myanmar junta forces since the military coup in February 2021. The divided Chin family of Myanmar seems to be working in favour of the Arakan nationalists who have joined hands with the Chin Brotherhood Alliance. The same has been condemned by the CNF/CNA in its effort towards consolidating Chin unification. Many groups from Myanmar and India have made efforts to unite the Chin political groups for an amicable solution.

The Chin groups and the ULA/AA hold some keys to unlock Manipur’s socio-political and economic problems. Here, academicians and activists who have keen interest in promoting the well-being of Manipur must come together to find ways to engage these political groups at the earliest. Keeping aside the significance of the Kaladan multi-modal transport project, Chin state and Rakhine state in Myanmar have been the hotbeds of migrants coming to Manipur from the south and south-west directions since antiquity.

It is natural that the Kuki-Zo tribes living in Myanmar will continue to court their ethnic and cultural ties with the members of the tribes living Manipur. With special focus on Sagaing region and Chin and Rakhine states of Myanmar, it is necessary to have a long-term policy for Manipur to handle the Myanmar affairs as far as migration and influx of refugee are concerned. Peace, tranquility and development in these parts of Myanmar will contribute immensely to the welfare of Manipur.

The question now is, are the authorities in Manipur serious about the Myanmar affairs? Without proper and timely actions, the socio-cultural fault lines will keep widening and, as a result, the conflicting political aspirations would end up pitting one against the other. Thus, a vicious circle of violence and hatred could push the state into anarchism and social chaos. Do we have enough peace infrastructures to deal with such a situation?

Amidst such developments, India’s refugee policy needs to be carefully studied in view of the demographic challenges to Manipur by these developments in the neighbouring countries. In this context, the Chief of Army Staff, Upendra Dwivedi, while addressing the Army’s annual press conference on 13th January 2025, had stated India government’s positive attitude towards the refugees from Myanmar.

India is not yet a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol. Nevertheless, India has established its own mechanism to uphold the principle of non-refoulement as far as refugees are concerned. The 1946 Foreigners Act plays a key role in their treatment in India. For India, influx of refugees from Myanmar is not a new matter.

Multiple institutions such as the Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) and the state governments are involved in dealing with the refugees residing in India. The rehabilitation and settlement of refugees comes under the Ministry of Home Affairs while the MEA is responsible for bilateral negotiations with other countries. The responsibilities for protection and maintenance of the refugee camps are entrusted to the state governments.

Any concerned citizen would like to know the role of the Manipur state government in the whole dealings of refugees from Myanmar. However, what is troubling is India’s dealing with the refugees on an ad hoc and arbitrary basis leaves ample room for manipulation and wrong doings. Mahika Khosla (2022) has done good analysis on the topic in the article titled ‘The Geopolitics of India’s Refugee Policy’.

The onus is on the Government of India to protect Manipur’s unique identity and cultural life from forces of destruction. The people of Manipur who stand for inclusivity and multi-culturalism will firmly stand guard against any aberration.


* Dr. Puyam Rakesh wrote this article for e-pao.net
The writer can be contacted at khuman_mei(AT)yahoo(DOT)com
This article was webcasted on January 24 2025.



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