Rethinking the NE : Manipur as India's experiment for tribal integration

Dr Raj Singh *

Introduction

The 22-month-old Meitei-Kuki ethnic conflict sees some silver lining of peace in appointing a well-experienced retired bureaucrat His Excellency Ajay Kumar Bhalla as Governor of Manipur. He has seen the resignation of the Chief Minister, and he is actively overseeing the work toward the much-awaited normalcy. But Kukis, who demanded the Chief Minister’s resignation as a condition to the peace process have started saying that no matter whether he resigns or not there is no alternative solution to Separate Adminis- tration/Union Territory.

Failing to understand the Kukis, I consulted two iconic academic documents to help me understand the situation dealing with Kukis and other hill tribes by State-centric people, for instance, the 2000-year-old Manipur Kingdom and the Union of India.

1. Scott, James C. The Art of Not Being Governed : An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia. Yale University Press, 2009.

2. van Schendel, Willem.“ Geographies of Knowing, Geographies of Ignorance: Jumping Scale in Southeast Asian Studies.” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, vol. 20, no. 6, 2002, pp. 647-668. Willem, a Dutch researcher identified a vast stretch of highland region in Southeast Asia covering parts of Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, China (Yunnan, Guangxi), and North East India as regions not covered by the “area” – a geographic and anthropological understanding of the State-centric discourses as the upland tribes in these regions historically remained outside the full control of Centralized States. He coined the name “Zomia” for this region (the name has nothing to do with the Zomi people in Manipur and Mizoram in this analysis).

Scott, an American Political Scientist popularized Willem’s Zomia in his intriguingly titled book, “The Art of Not Being Governed………..” referring to the hill tribes in Zomia who opted autonomies to remain outside civilizations for tax evasion and other self-isolating considerations. Scott’s Zomia theory, which posits that upland communities in Southeast Asia have historically evaded State control to maintain autonomy, offers a compelling lens to understand these tribes. These communities are not relics of primitivism but rather conscious actors resisting coercion from Centralized valley-based States.

India’s current approach—treating them as backward and offering protective policies without addressing their inherent resistance to State control—has resulted in an endless cycle of escalating demands for autonomy. Unless India recalibrates its policy framework, these demands will continue evolving from Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) to Sixth Schedule protections, then to full-fledged Statehood aspirations, and, ultimately, to transnational ethnic homelands, threatening the National integrity.

Moreover, India’s struggle to manage these conflicts has significant geopolitical implications. As a swing State in global politics, India’s internal turmoil invites both adversaries and allies to intervene. A poorly handled North Eastern insurgency can become a strategic vulnerability, allowing foreign powers to exploit instability, disrupt trade routes, and jeopardize India’s ambitious economic growth targets.

In this context, India must look to its neighbors: China, which has largely succeeded in integrating its upland tribes through economic development and structured autonomy, and Myanmar, whose failures serve as a cautionary tale of what happens when weak governance meets ethnic resistance.

The Zomia Theory and Its Relevance to Manipur

Scott’s Zomia framework describes upland groups as communities that have historically resisted incor- poration into State structures, preferring decen- tralized governance, subsistence economies, and mobile social structures. In Manipur, this historical resistance manifests in the tribal populations’ reluctance to conform to valley-State political control and democratic India.

This pattern explains the recurring autonomy movements, which have steadily escalated in scope. What starts as a demand for more powers under ADCs often transitions into full-fledged Statehood aspirations. Unless India addresses the root causes—governance models that fail to integrate upland traditions into the National framework—the North Eastern insurgencies will continue to fester, draining resources and threatening national stability.

Geographical Coverage of Zomia

Zomia encompasses an estimated 2.5 million square kilometers of rugged highlands, stretching across Southeast Asia and into parts of South Asia and southwestern China. The region is characterized by its inaccessibility, dense forests, steep mountains, and a lack of major infrastructural development, which historically made it difficult for lowland States to control and administer.

Key regions within Zomia include:

1) The Shan Hills and Kachin Hills in Myanmar
2) The Northern and Western Highlands of Thailand
3) The Annamite Range in Vietnam and Laos
4) The Central Highlands of Vietnam
5) The mountainous regions of Yunnan and Guangxi in China
6) The hilly tracts of North East India (Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, and Arunachal Pradesh)

Valley-Based Civilizations in Zomia

Despite Zomia being predominantly inhabited by Stateless highland groups, the surrounding valleys and plains are home to some of Southeast Asia’s oldest and most sophisticated civilizations. These civilizations historically sought to expand their influence into the highlands but often found resistance from local hill tribes.

Some of the major valley-based civilizations include:

1. The Burmese (Bamar) Civilization – Centered around the Irrawaddy River basin, the Bamar established powerful States such as the Pagan Empire, Taungoo Dynasty, and Konbaung Dynasty.
2. The Thai and Lao Kingdoms – Including Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, and later the Kingdom of Siam in Thailand, as well as the Lan Xang Kingdom in Laos.
3. The Vietnamese States – The Di-Vit and later Nguyen dynasties, which sought to expand from the Red River Delta into the highlands.
4. The Khmer Empire – Centered in present-day Cambodia, this empire had an extensive influence over the lowlands, though its reach into the highlands was limited.
5. The Chinese States – The Ming and Qing Dynasties had periodic control over Yunnan and its highland communities but struggled with effective governance.
6. The Indianized States of North East India –India’s North East historically housed several significant valley-based kingdoms, including:
I. The Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826)
II. The Manipur Kingdom (circa 1st century – 1949)
III. The Kachari Kingdom (13th–18th century)
IV. The Tripuri Kingdom (15th century–1949)

Among these, the most established valley-based centralized States were the Ahom and the Manipur Kingdoms. The Manipur Kingdom was the oldest and the only Kingdom that enjoyed full sovereignty on the day of India’s independence from the British.

Tribal Groups in Zomia

The highlands of Zomia are home to an estimated 100 million people, many of whom belong to ethno-linguistic minority groups. Some of the major tribal groups include:

1) The Karen, Kachin, and Shan (Myanmar, Thailand)
2) The Hmong, Mien, and Akha (Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, China)
3) The Lisu, Lahu, and Wa (Myanmar, China, Thailand, Laos)
4) The Naga, Mizo, and Kuki (North East India)
5) The Montagnards (Degar people) (Vietnam)

Modern Governmental Units Formed by Zomia Tribal Groups

Several Zomia tribal groups have successfully established modern Governmental units, often as autonomous States, or administrative regions within larger Nation-States. Some examples include:

1) Nagaland, Mizoram, and Meghalaya in India – These North Eastern Indian States are predominantly inhabited by Zomia-related ethnic groups such as the Naga, Mizo, Khasi, and Garo.
2) Chin and Kachin States in Myanmar – These administrative regions are home to the Chin and Kachin ethnic groups, who maintain a distinct identity within Myanmar’s federal structure.
3) Wa Self-Administered Region in Myanmar – Controlled by the ethnic Wa people, this region enjoys a high degree of autonomy.
4) Guizhou and Yunnan Provinces in China – Though under Chinese governance, these provinces have significant populations of Zomia ethnic groups, such as the Hmong, Yi, and Miao.

Tribal Groups Integrated into Valley States

Many Zomia tribal groups exist as part of erstwhile valley States that have since modernized and consolidated their rule. Some examples include:

1) The Karen and Shan in Myanmar – Although Myanmar remains a centralized State, these groups have maintained semi-autonomous status within designated regions.
2) The Hmong and Mien in Vietnam and Laos – These groups have largely assimilated into the modern Lao and Vietnamese states but retain distinct cultural traditions.
3) The Montagnards in Vietnam – Many have integrated into the Vietnamese State but continue to face cultural and political challenges.
4) The Lahu and Akha in Thailand–While part of Thailand, they maintain unique ethnic identities and traditions.

How to deal with hill tribals?

There are lessons for India to learn from neighboring countries China and Myanmar using Scott’s and Willem’s Zomia framework wherein integration works better than excessive autonomy. The following comparison highlights the facts.

The Geopolitical Risks of Mishandling Northeast Tribal Conflicts

As India aims to position itself as a global economic powerhouse, its failure to handle the North East tribal issue poses an existential risk. Here’s why:

1. Foreign Influence in Insurgencies – Unresolved grievances provide fertile ground for external actors to fund insurgencies, like Myanmar’s Kachin and Wa ethnic conflicts.
2. Threat to Trade Routes – The North East is pivotal to India’s Act East Policy, linking it to Southeast Asia. Persistent instability disrupts trade and infrastructure projects like the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway.
3. Security Concerns – Prolonged unrest near India’s borders invites unwanted interference from China, Myanmar, and Bangladesh, either through direct support of insurgents or through strategic investments aimed at increasing regional influence.
4. Delayed Economic Growth–India’s vision of becoming a $5 trillion economy depends on political stability. Prolonged conflicts in the North East deter investments and slow down development.
5. Shifting International Alliances – Weak governance in the North East could make India increasingly reliant on Western alliances for security, potentially compromising its strategic autonomy in international politics.

Policy Solutions for Integration and Stability

To mitigate these risks and create a stable North Eastern frontier, India must pursue a multidimensional strategy.

1. Political and Administrative Reforms

a) Redefining ADCs: Rather than strengthening them under the Sixth Schedule, ADCs should be gradually integrated into mainstream State governance. Full implementation of the six ADCs augmented by the legislative backing of the Hill Areas Committee in Manipur can work toward the desired integration.

b) Reassessing Special Status Policies: Affirmative action should transition into policies that encourage political participation rather than perpetuate segregation; and capacity building rather than protection.

c) Strengthening Border Security: Tightening control along the Indo- Myanmar border to prevent external interference in tribal insurgencies– FMR removal, border fence, and NRC are the correct steps.

2. Economic Development Strategies

a) Infrastructure Development: Expanding road networks, digital connectivity, and rural electrification to integrate tribal economies into national markets. India should come up with a special thrust of infrastructure development – for instance increasing the present 37% metalled road in hill regions of Manipur to 80% of that of Yunnan region in China.

b) Special Economic Zones (SEZs) in Upland Areas: Making the SEZ in Manipur (one among the 400 identified for India) functional early to attract investments, generate employment, and provide alter- natives to illicit economies.

3) Equitable resource and opportunity sharing between tribals and non-tribals:

a) As opposed to the situation all over India where tribal land occupation is lesser than that of non-tribals, 90% of the land in Manipur remains with the tribals with protectionary laws to restrict Meiteis. This makes Meiteis with 53% of the population confined to the remaining 10% open to all tribals, Meiteis, and other Indians. A new resource-sharing mechanism is required to give Meiteis access to uplands while creating reserves exclusive to tribals for their customary activities.

b) Strategic Foreign Investment Controls: Preventing investments in sensitive North Eastern projects that could lead to external geopolitical manipulation.

3. Conflict Resolution and Diplomatic Engagement

a) Peace Talks with Insurgent Groups : Promoting dialogue and negotiated settlements over prolonged military crackdowns and the alleged divide-and-rule policies of the Central Government.

4) Regional Diplomacy on Northeast Stability

Engaging ASEAN and neighboring countries in cooperative security agreements to prevent cross- border insurgency support.

5) Intelligence Coordination

Strengthening intelligence-sharing with allies to prevent external interference in northeast conflicts.

Conclusion

India’s ability to secure and integrate its North Eastern tribal communities will determine not only regional peace but also its global geopolitical positioning. The failures of Myanmar provide a grim reminder of how ethnic resistance can spiral into perpetual instability, while China’s successes highlight the effectiveness of strategic economic and political integration.

If India does not rethink its approach—transitioning from affirmative policies to active integration—the North East will remain a vulnerable frontier, open to external manipulation. Resolving the Meitei- Kuki conflict with a pragmatic, long-term governance model can set the stage for broader stability.

By proactively shaping its internal and external policies, India can transform its North Eastern frontier from a liability into a strategic asset, solidifying its role as a global leader in the 21st century.