Chainarol: Way of the Warrior
- Manipuri Humanitarian Traditions -
- Excerpts from the Book -

Published by HRA (Human Rught Alert) *

Introduction by Irengbam Arun
At the book launch

I am deeply humbled by this august gathering. The Chainarol project is a dream for me and many of us here which has come true today. The seed which had bore fruit today was sown by the then Head of Delegation of ICRC Mr Vincent Nicod in 2008. And I must thank him, the present Head of Delegation Mr Fransuwa and the ICRC for continued assistance and encouragement.

Translating an archaic Manipuri text full of rich imagery into English turned out to be one of the most difficult tasks. We all have seen translation of different Puyas from archaic Manipuri to modern Manipuri and again to English Language. But, our exercise is entirely different as it is the product of team effort and consultative process.

We are lucky to havea competent Puya scholar in the person of Chanam Hemchandra and eminent translator A Birendra Singh in the project team. Besides the members of the team, we were fortunate to draw the wisdom of experts from various disciplines such as English and Manipuri literature, linguistics, history, anthropology, geography and biology. Mention may be made of Prof N Khagendra (my mentor), Professor P Nabachandra, Prof Ch Yaswanta and my colleague Pradip Phanjoubam.

We have had to consult not only four versions of Chainarol from different custodians, but different Puyas like Khagemba Lanpha, Samsok Ngamba, Takhel Ngamba, Auwa Ngamba, Khahi Ngamba and Sapharol Lanpharol in search of humanitarian traditions in ancient times. The comparative study of IHL and Manipuri humanitarian tradition was done under the able leadership Dr MC Arun of Manipur University.

Here also, the combination of collective effort and consultative process was adopted. And it has done wonders in the translation and comparative study. I would recommend this process in future projects involving the Puyas. Allow me to inform you that, Manipur University had recently acquired original texts of about 500 puyas. I am confident that the rich repository of knowledge stored in our Puyas would soon be open to eyes of the world. With this words, allow me to conclude.

Thank you.

Puya text of Chainarol (Way of the Warrior)

   Haya He He He Leeklai O!
Yeepungthou Nongthourel Pumapa O!
O All Pervasive Spirit Primordial,
Thou Lord of all, and Progenitor Sole!
Of times olden when thy noble vassals
Matchless in might and dauntless in battles,
In games of war grim well they were adept
Safe the borders of their homeland they kept.
These men-at-arms were not at all afraid
Of the booming notes of bittern that wade
Over marshes bloody wars portending,
Nor the eerie whine of the waifs wailing,
The ominous croak of the black raven,
The thunder of cascades o'er the mountain,
The chiming note ofTamna so estrange,
Popping by the weir side the headless corpse.
Shields clashed and spears lunged at each other as
In single combats these vassals engage.
And I, the minstrel, submit to recount
Details of these mortal combats’ account.

MANIPURI HUMANITARIAN TRADITIONS

Introduction

From pre-historic times, different streams of people migrated from the north to the Indo-Burma region. Many of them settled in both hill and valley regions of present day Manipur. Out of ethnic amalgamation and cultural assimilation in the valley, a unique Meitei identity was forged by the first century A.D. Later, a Manipuri identity emerged bringing within its fold the Meitei and other indigenous ethnic groups of Manipur.

Among the speakers of the Tibeto-Burman family of languages in India, the Meiteis have a script of their own. From early times their scholars wrote in this script a number of manuscripts, known collectively as the puyas. These puyas are still jealously guarded by their custodians in many families.

During the historical phase when the Meitei polity based in present-day Imphal was yet to become the pre-eminent power, there remained semi-autonomous chiefdoms even in the valley region. While acknowledging the supremacy of the Meitei king, they had distinct group identities and separate systems of governance. Cordial relations normally prevailed among them, but there were also conflicts of interests particularly over boundaries, plantations, fishing and other economic resources. As there was no law or agreed procedure enforced by a supreme authority to settle disputes, these conflicts of interests were often resolved through armed personal (one-on-one) combats between chosen warriors representing their respective groups.

The Meitei have a long history of written records. Though there are different opinions regarding the origin and growth of the Meitei writing system, their ancient texts and chronicles are of great importance in studying history, epistemology and the cultural history of the region. Any ancient written text is generally called a puya.

Chainarol is a puya that records many armed combats of warriors through different periods of history. From cross-references with other puyas, scholars believe that the first entry in Choinarol is a personal combat dating back to the first century A.D. and the latest episode to the second half of the 16th century A.D.

Obviously, Chainarol is a literary work of many authors in different periods. It is also possible that a few scholars at a much later period recorded oral traditions pass down from generation to generation. Not surprisingly, a few versions of the Chainarol manuscript are available today, with minor differences in detail. The version adopted here is the one transcribed and rendered into modern Manipuri language by a reputed Manipuri scholar, Mr. Chanam Hemchandra. It was published by Lamyanba Publishers, Imphal, in 2006.

Chainarol is thus not about wars or large scale armed conflicts, which are the usual concern of international humanitarian law. It is about personal armed combats, which are known as the chainaba in Manipuri language, between two warriors. But, the different episodes of chainaba in Chainarol have a strong undercurrent of humanity, a clear distinction between combatants and non-combatants, an exemplary respect for the body of the dead warrior, and a conscious attempt to avoid both direct and indirect harm to the surrounding areas.

By the 14th century, consolidation of power by the Meitei with a stable form of government was more or less complete. According to many puyas, the powers and functions of different organs of the state were clearly defined. All non-Meitei ethnic groups in the valley had become homogeneous culturally to a great extent and the hill tribes also had been brought under the sway of the Meitei king. In the changed circumstances, disputes over boundaries or economic resources between or among different groups became a matter of routine adjudication by the state functionary/organ concerned. In other words, chainaba as a conflict resolution mechanism became superfluous.

A Chainaba in Chainarol usually results in the decapitation of the defeated warrior. But it is different from the practice of headhunting that was prevalent in some areas what is now North-East India is and in Southeast Asia. The latter practice of tribal headhunting usually involved the following:

1. stealth attack or surprise ambush;
2. women and children as prized victims;
3. severed heads displayed in public as trophies;
4. victor's pride and prestige in the number of enemy heads collected; and
5. tribal feud, personal vendetta or sometimes magical-religious belief as motives.

In a chainaba, a Meitei warrior openly declares his intention for a personal combat and it always requires acceptance by his opponent to materialize. Chainaba is thus not a surprise ambush or stealth raid on the enemy to cut as many heads as possible including those of women and children. Personal vendetta rarely plays a role in chainaba though it is a personal combat between two individual warriors.

The severed head of the vanquished warrior is certainly a proud testimony to the prowess of the victor but it is kept in private by him with a ritual respect. To a Meitei warrior, combat-worthiness of the opponent he had defeated is much more important than the quantity of heads severed. Decapitation of an opponent in chainaba thus occurs in a context and manner entirely different from that in tribal headhunting.

Typical chainaba in Chainarol

The personal combat between Nongyai Khuman Chakha Moiremba and Heirem Kangbisu Athouba is typical of a chainaba between two Meitei warriors. They either volunteer themselves or are chosen to conduct an armed personal combat on behalf their respective peoples. Honours and awards are bestowed on the victor by the ruler. In this case, the former's involvement in the combat was not of his own volition but in answer to the call of his Khuman chiefdom ruler.

Chainarol records thus:

Adol Nongyai Khuman Ningthou Punsiba Puyam Imlelba Tandu Lalthaba Lemlei Ningthou Haiheiba, the king of Khuman, made an announcement in the Khuman Kangla:
" O our noble vassals, ranged at my south and at my north! Heirem Kangbisu Athouba had forbidden our very subjects from gathering herbs and vegetables and from collecting firewood within our own territory. We have overheard our womenfolk talking among themselves about this matter in the lanes and by-lanes. This lame stalwart of Heirem Khulchal, solely dependent on his walking aid, has become too bold. Who of all the men-at-arms assembled at Khuman Kangla, shall fight a single combat against this intrepid warrior? "

None of the warriors sitting at the south responded, nor did anyone from the north. At long last, rose from the farthermost bench at the north, a warrior who of late has attended Kangla. Like the last bamboo-shoot of the year attaining the full height of the clump, youthful and doing well in the ways of war, Nongyai Chakha Moiremba Athouba came forward.

Unskilled as I am in the ways of the warrior, in order to comply with your royal wish, my liege! I, your humble servant, shall go and spar my spear in personal combat," he submitted.

Nongyai Khuman Ningthou, the conqueror of Henu Tharoncha of Kege Haothak Salbalya, spoke, "O Nongyai Chakha Moiremba, our noble vassal, your bold decision shall keep the honor and dignity of Khuman Kangla and our homeland. You are the right person and you do us proud."The king then offered him a roll of betel nut from nis own casket in appreciation and encouragement.

When a combatant, wearing his typical warrior's garb, challenges an opponent who happens to be attending to his daily chores to a personal combat, the opponent is given time to put his battle gear on and fetch his weapon. He is not treated as a combatant until he is duly equipped and ready for action.

In the combat between Nongyai Khuman Chakha Moiremba and Heirem Kangbisu Athouba, the former threw a challenge for a personal combat saying:
"Pathou Heirem Kangbisu Athouba O! Let us clash our shields and spar our spears in personal combat today."

Heirem Kangbisu replied,
"Neither shield nor spear have I brought to-day as I am ploughing the paddy-field in the company of women folk. This handy bamboo cattle-whip may not serve the purpose of a shield nor can my bamboo-walking stick with its iron tailpiece function as a combat spear. Let me go home once to fetch my spear and shield. Pathou Nongyai Chakha Moiremba Athouba O! am not slinking away from the fight. Rest awhile here at this ancestral paddy field of Khulchal."

Nongyai Khuman Chakha Moiremba addresses his opponent as Pathou or esteemed compeer and respects him as a worthy opponent. He does not take advantage of the unpreparedness of Heirem Kangbisu Athouba. He waits till Heirem Kangbisu Athouba returns with his weapons, donning his warrior dress. Each other's past achievements in combat and in hunting are recounted just before the combat.

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Published by :
Human Right Alert
Kwakeithel Thiyam Leikai
Imphal - - 795001
Manipur


Project Team

• Aheibam Birendra, Principal Translator
• Dr. M.C. Arun, Principal Investigator
• Irengbam Arun, Co - translator
• Chanam Hemchandra, Consultant, Ancient texts
• Dr. L. Bishwanath Sharma, Research Associate
• Oinam Jitendra Singh, Research Assistant
• Babloo Loitongbam - Co-ordinator

Copies of the book are available from:

The Administrator
Human Right Alert
Kwakeithel, Thiyam Leikai,
Imphal - 795001
Manipur

email: hramanipur(at)gmail(dot)com

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* This book is published by HRA (Human Rught Alert) , and the excerpt is taken from Chapter II from that book, "Chainarol: Way of Warrior", a treatise on ancient text of Manipur with permission from HRA
This article was posted on April 19, 2012 and later updated on April 22 2012. .

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