TODAY -

Prevention and control of parasitism in livestock
- Part 2 -

Kalyan Sarma *



Safe Pasture

The generation of safe pastures generally relied on the prevention or reduction of contamination during periods of peak egg shedding and then allowing the larvae to die off during periods when the pasture was not grazed. It is assumed that spelling a pasture, allowing it to remain ungrazed for a period of time, will reduce the number of infective larvae on pasture.

Resting a pasture can reduce the number of infective larvae. Twice weekly removal of excessive faeces provided superior nematode strongyle cyathostomin and ascarid control, as well as a 100% increase in grazing area, and freedom from drug related problems. The routine management systems on these farms include removal of faeces once, or twice, every 2 months.

This practice results in the reduction of nematode egg counts to less than 300 eggs per gram (EPG). The life cycle of parasites is interrupted when faeces are removed, or collected to use for fuel, building material and for composting.

Strategic Anthelmintic Treatment

A strategic treatment aims to remove a worm burden. The treatment of young animals at weaning, in conjunction with a move to a spelt pasture. Anthelmintic treatment should be given before extreme climatic conditions of either very high or very low temperatures or intense droughty.

Hot dry conditions over summer result in very low larval availability so that anthelmintic treatment at this time is followed by very low rates of re-infection. Larvae of H. contortus cannot survive extreme cold such as occurs in a northern continental winter, so treatment of housed sheep or goats in winter should be very effective in controlling this species.

For some parasite species, such as H. contortus and T. colubriformis, resistance to new infection can occur before resident infections are expelled. An anthelmintic treatment at this time to remove the resident worms result in an extended period of low egg production because of acquired immunity to new infection. The best example of a strategic anthelmintic treatment is the single treatment at 10 days of age with pyrantel to control Toxocaravitulorum in calves within a few days of birth via the colostrums.

Biological control

Biological control on pasture includes the use of predatory fungi to kill a variety of nematode species and substantially reduce the intensity of infection. Challenges to fungal control have been a requirement for the daily administering of fungi to the host and achieving the required fungal density inside the dung.

However, a nematode-killing fungus, Duddingtonia flagrans, recently discovered in New Zealand, was shown to have a trapping efficiency rate of 78% and activity for up to 90 days on pasture, providing a viable alternative to reduce animal mortality from nematode infections. Control of the snail intermediate hosts by foraging flocks of ducks has shown to be of practical value in the control of Fasciolagigantica infections of ruminants raised in the rice-producing areas of South-East Asia.

The benefit is shown to be two-fold. Not only do the ducks seek snails as a food source, but the free-living stages of Echinostoma Revolutum, which is a common trematode parasite of ducks, out-compete F. gigantica in utilising snails as intermediate hosts.

Another finding of great practical importance in fluke control of buffalo and cattle in paddy farming areas is that encysted metacercaria is mainly confined to the bottom third of rice plants.

An extension programme, advising farmers to feed only the top two-thirds of freshly cut rice stalks to their animals, encouraging the use of ducks, avoiding the grazing of harvested rice fields close to cattle pens and using only a single anthelmintic treatment with triclabendazole in the dry season, has been successfully promoted in West Java for several years. Separating hosts from their faeces is the simplest, cheapest and most effective form of biological control of parasitic diseases.

A variety of birds rely heavily on coprophagous invertebrates as a food source and in seeking these, they tear bovine dung pats apart thus destroying the environmental buffering capacity of these large faecal masses. It is their invertebrate prey, notably dung beetles, scarabs and to lesser extent earthworms, however, that is capable of rapid and often complete dung removal and thus is indirectly responsible for significant reductions in the number of free-living stages of parasites (Waller and Faedo, 1996).

Nutritional management

The supplement is also a major strategy to control parasites. The plane of nutrition is an important determinant of the response by animals to parasitism by affecting the development and establishment of parasites and also influencing the magnitude of their pathogenic effects. Many reports in the literature attest to the synergistic relationship between helminth infection and malnutrition.

Well-nourished animals are generally more resistant to the effects of parasite infection. Therefore, nutritional supplementation may reduce the requirement for chemotherapeutic control. Feed supplementation, particularly with high quality protein, is often necessary to maintain a better immune response to internal parasites than animals whose nutritional status is compromised low protein diets are responsible for causing infection because they produce less IgA (immunoglobulin).

High protein diets have been shown to improve the pregnant ewe's immune response to parasites after lambing. Lambs receiving protein supplementation have reduced faecal egg counts. Additional dietary protein, selenium, as well as minerals may each play a role in countering infections presumably through mechanisms such as enhancing host immunity or maintaining digestive tract integrity.

Parasite-inhibiting plants have also been tested for their ability to reduce egg shedding and pasture seeding density. Copper wire particle (COWP) capsules were developed to overcome the copper deficiency in ruminants grazing on mineral deficient and marginal grazing lands. The copper particles pass to the abomasum where they lodge in the mucosal folds and release ionic copper over an extended period.

An additional important benefit of ultra-low-dose copper therapy is on reducing certain parasite infections in grazing livestock. Research has shown that 2-5 g COWP capsules administered orally to sheep resulted in a high-level anthelmintic effect against H. contortus, as well as extended protection (approximately 3 months) against incoming infection of this parasite.

Genetics of host resistance

One alternative approach to controlling parasitic nematode infections is to use the natural diversity of the host genome to reduce parasite transmission. In cows, studies have shown that the number of nematode eggs/gram (EPG) in faeces was influenced by host genetics with an estimated heritability of 0.30.

A small percentage of the herd was responsible for the majority of parasite transmission, a distribution strongly suggesting that genetic management could reduce overall parasite transmission. Breeding to obtain livestock that is genetically resistant to nematode infection is the ultimate in sustainable parasite control.

Good examples of genetic resistance can be found across the wide spectrum of animal parasitic disease entities of the tropics; such as the resistance of Bos indicus cattle to the cattle tick, Boophilusmicroplus, trypanotolerance of the N'dama and West African shorthorn cattle, nematode (specifically H. contortus) resistance in the East African Maasai, Florida ad Louisiana Native, Barbados Blackbelly and the St. Croix breeds of sheep, and trematode resistance in Javanese thin-tailed sheep. Cattle breeds of Ongole/Nellore, Sahiwal, Ponwar hill cattle and buffaloes and resistance to tick infestation.

Chemotherapy

The use of anthelmintic is still the mainstay for nematode control. The successes have been cyclical and directly related to the timely introduction of new drugs as resistance to older drugs has surfaced. Effective drug utilization dates back to the 1960s with the development of benzimidazoles (BZ), followed by the imidothiazoles-tetrahydropyrimidines in the 1970s, and the production of macrocyclic lactones (avermectins and milbemycin) in the 1980s.

Avermectins and milbemycin emerged as compounds having a high efficacy against ectoparasites and effective in simultaneously killing nematode worms in the host. As result invermectin, doramectin and milbemycin became well accepted for the treatment of parasitic invasions in livestock.

During the last 35 years, the pharmaceutical industry has produced a succession of highly effective, broad-spectrum anthelmintic and veterinarians and livestock producers have come to expect that worm control is easy, either by drenching or injecting cattle, sheep and goats with these products.

This has made helminth control easy but has not fostered conservative use of the products. Control of ectoparasites with acaricides may be directed against the free-living stages in the environment or the parasitic stages on the host. Acaricides can be used by dipping, washes, spraying, pour-on, spot-on or by injections.

Insecticide ear tags are commercially available in some countries for the control of ear ticks. The following are the strategies for the use of chemical anthelmintic.

1. Regular treatments at intervals at or near the length of the pre-patent period of the parasite.
2. Animals are treated therapeutically, whenever production losses and /or uncontrolled disease is considered to be significant
3. Treat all animals in the herd or flock.
4. Treat only those animals that are perceived to need treatment use of a narrow-spectrum drug, closantel, in combination with a minimum number of treatments with broad-spectrum anthelmintic. Closantel is particularly effective against Haemonchus and has a persistent effect for 2 to 3 months.
5. Proper drenching of the drug.
6. Reduce feed before drenching: Restricting access to fee for 24 hours before drenching slows the flow of gut contents containing the drench from the rumen. Reduced feed intake prolongs drench uptake, extending the effective duration of the killing effect

To be continued...


* Kalyan Sarma wrote this article for The Sangai Express
The writer is from College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Central Agricultural University, Aizawl, Mizoram
This article was webcasted on 25 September 2022.



* Comments posted by users in this discussion thread and other parts of this site are opinions of the individuals posting them (whose user ID is displayed alongside) and not the views of e-pao.net. We strongly recommend that users exercise responsibility, sensitivity and caution over language while writing your opinions which will be seen and read by other users. Please read a complete Guideline on using comments on this website.




LATEST IN E-PAO.NET
  • Archaeology: Culture of Manipur : Booklet
  • Violence in Manipur 2023-2025 : Timeline
  • Wanna be a singer? Get Botox
  • A Central institute in Manipur
  • Nagging in the name of love
  • COVID-19: Update 02 July 2025 : Manipur
  • 'Benefits' of Indira's Emergency
  • Social Stigma :: Poem
  • Inking a peace pact: Why, how: SoO quagmire
  • Van Mahotsav under shadow of declining forest
  • 11th Th Kishan Memorial Lecture : Gallery
  • Shinthoibi, Jangvei, Tamphaton : eMing
  • Manipur crisis & the Left media's blind spot
  • COVID-19: Update 01 July 2025 : Manipur
  • Bombom RK : Musclemania Universe NYC
  • The Grief :: Poem
  • Music Concert & Quiz (MCQ) 2.0
  • SoO agreement unlikely to be scrapped
  • Regulating use of plastic carry bags
  • Mera Houchongba @Kangla #4 : Gallery
  • International Day of Yoga @JNMDA : Gallery
  • BD Behring: The inimitable Gentleman I knew
  • Violence in the name of patriotism : Misguided
  • Daily oral vs long-acting injectable for HIV
  • COVID-19: Update 30 June 2025 : Manipur
  • Smile :: Poem
  • Why was President's Rule imposed ?
  • BJP under pressure to forge unity
  • Kang @Leikai in Imphal : Gallery
  • July Calendar for Year 2025 : Tools
  • COVID-19 : A recurring crisis in Manipur
  • DC Kaith and Forestry in Manipur : Book
  • COVID-19: Update 29 June 2025 : Manipur
  • Longing for Peace :: Poem
  • Black badge, slogan protest by peeved scribes
  • Present the true picture before Delhi
  • Pung-Cholom @ Polo Tournament : Gallery
  • Life: A Journey Through Thought & Being
  • Khongjai Hills & Kuki claim to indigeneity
  • Master Time by Managing Information
  • COVID-19: Update 28 June 2025 : Manipur
  • Pride & patriotism in CCpur's army families
  • The Power of Poppy - 87 :: Poem
  • World Decarbonisation Day: green environment
  • Welcome Home - Nganthoi #2 : Gallery
  • Loss of two precious lives from Manipur
  • Balancing civil liberties with public safety
  • COVID-19: Update 27 June 2025 : Manipur
  • Gender equality & human rights are indivisible
  • Stay hydrated this summer season
  • Silent Half of the Sun :: Poem
  • Connecting the dots in the wishlist
  • Assembly record tampering claims by ex-CM
  • The immortal legacy of Pukhramba Kajao
  • International Day against Drug Abuse 2025
  • COVID-19: Update 26 June 2025 : Manipur
  • Black pottery from Ukhrul - tribal heritage
  • Program on "Mission-Drug Free Campus"
  • Play makes a better world
  • Urgent Appeal to the Honourable MLAs
  • Tribal Empowerment Campaign at CCpur
  • Talk doing the round: PM to come
  • 'Emergency' relief for under-fire BJP
  • Golden Jubilee Art Fair @Imphal : Gallery
  • Declaration: Meetei People Convention, Delhi
  • A Flower Among the Rocks :: Review
  • Book Donation Campaign
  • Improved road connectivity boosts livelihoods
  • To Have Great Dreams :: Poem
  • COVID-19: Update 25 June 2025 : Manipur
  • Regret vs Sorry: Technical & moral insight
  • Cocktail of inept Govt, selfish people
  • State trailing others in cleanliness
  • Colonial Knowledge in NE India #6
  • UHI effect & rising temperatures in Manipur
  • Frequent road blockades cripple economy
  • COVID-19: Update 24 June 2025 : Manipur
  • Unite Health with Community health services
  • NSU, Imphal, tops IIRF Ranking 2025
  • Endless conflict :: Poem
  • Pak nobel pish prize for Trump
  • May 3, 2023 - June 24, 2025: Failure of Delhi
  • Hotter days, sudden rainfall no more a rarity
  • "The Great June Uprising" #2 : Gallery
  • How to Build a Career, Lead with Purpose
  • 2nd Foundation Day- Karnataka Meitei Assn
  • COVID-19: Update 23 June 2025 : Manipur
  • NSCN-IM Amnesty threatens to isolate it
  • Sunset :: Poem
  • Intl Yoga Day for a healthier environment
  • Of clogged drains and plastics
  • Poor roads testify Govt indifference
  • Welcome Home - Nganthoi #1 : Gallery
  • The Silent Erosion of Manipuri Language
  • Design health services around people
  • Serene Hills Host Inspiring Int'l Yoga Day
  • COVID-19: Update 22 June 2025 : Manipur
  • Chopper services between Senapati & Imphal
  • High Court Judges interacted with convicts
  • Redyeing the Fabric :: Poem
  • Differences yet to be resolved stand
  • Border fencing rage as solution eludes
  • Radio E-pao: 14 new songs updated
  • Climate Adaptive Agroforestry
  • Manipur overlooked demographic shifts
  • Young designers shine on Fashion Stage
  • COVID-19: Update 21 June 2025 : Manipur
  • International Day of Yoga at Lamphelpat
  • International Day of Yoga at JNMDA
  • The Power of Poppy - 86 :: Poem
  • Keishampat Lairembi Haraoba #1 : Gallery
  • Crisis in Manipur's Contemporary Education
  • Best 8 Performances in Manipuri Cinema
  • Identity: Caught between China & India ?
  • COVID-19: Update 20 June 2025 : Manipur
  • To The Father Who Listens :: Poem
  • How does net suspension affect youths ?
  • Targeting farmers to cripple state's economy
  • The virus is back and spreading
  • Who is afraid of Manipur ?
  • A threatened lily growing at Shirui Hills
  • World Environment Day in Manipur : Gallery
  • Ambubachi Mela at Maa Kamakhya
  • COVID-19: Update 19 June 2025 : Manipur
  • Dolls made from repurposed vegetable refuse
  • Condemns Attack on Farmer & Killing
  • Abhorrent politics of SoO
  • Police arrogance on harmless drivers
  • "The Great June Uprising" #1 : Gallery
  • Solution from Buddhist & Jain perspectives
  • AI sparks employment concerns in Manipur
  • Greatest Foe :: Poem
  • Chief Justice at Relief Camp, Kangpokpi
  • Call for Recognition of a 3rd Category of IDPs
  • Jun 18, 2001- May 3, 2023: Seed of violence
  • Contract scam in hill districts
  • Colonial Knowledge in NE India #5
  • Spaced Out - Panthung Di Kadaaida! : Rvw
  • Condemns the Killing of Abdul Qadir
  • COVID-19: Update 17 June 2025 : Manipur
  • Thoubal aspirant makes Manipur proud
  • Tamenglong hospital brings quality healthcare
  • Chief Justice at Relief Camp, Mayang Imphal
  • Kuki CM & Sixth Schedule
  • Selective protests, selective silence
  • Nailing the culprits need of the hour
  • UK Meetei diaspora run for Myanmar : Gallery
  • Erwin Khundrakpam : NEET-UG 2025 topper
  • Will we rise to #endAIDS challenge or stumble
  • COVID-19: Update 16 June 2025 : Manipur
  • Appeal to Prime Minister: Manipur Crisis
  • Urges Action on Misinformation
  • Condolences : 2 young cabin crew
  • Grateful To Be Alive :: Poem
  • Making bonfire on the roads
  • Aggression yet again, inspite of playing victim
  • Aftermath of flooding @ Khurai #2 : Gallery
  • Zomia, geopolitics, & the struggle for unity
  • COVID-19: Update 15 June 2025 : Manipur
  • Condolences : Demise of 2 Manipuri Girls
  • Manipur unites in grief after Air India tragedy
  • Hail arms recovery as step toward peace
  • Cleanliness Drive at JNIMS Campus
  • Global Wind Day for a clean environment
  • First came the rain, then the heat
  • Rise in Covid-19 cases
  • Thang-Ta Day @Khuman Lampak #3 : Gallery
  • Meetei diaspora in UK runs for Myanmar victim
  • Manipur empower children with disabilities
  • COVID-19: Update 14 June 2025 : Manipur
  • World Blood Donor Day 2025
  • The Power of Poppy - 85 :: Poem
  • A Northeast Gin Makes Its Mark
  • Mera Houchongba @Kangla #3 : Gallery
  • Saluting Nganthoi, Lamnunthem : Joining hand
  • Condolence : Nganthoi & Lamnunthem
  • 50 years of Pebet #2 : Gallery
  • Indo-Naga Talks (From 2012) :: Timeline
  • Colonial Knowledge in NE India #4
  • Namphake Monastery @ Dibrugarh : Gallery
  • Protest @Checkon -AT arrest [Jun 9] : Gallery
  • Protests - AT arrest [Jun 8 night] : Gallery
  • Aftermath of flooding @ Khurai #1 : Gallery
  • /li>
  • Flooding at JNIMS Hospital #2 : Gallery
  • North East NSS Festival @ MU : Gallery
  • 27th Meira Paibi Numit : Gallery
  • Trump's tariff legacy & its global echo
  • Flooding at JNIMS Hospital #1 : Gallery
  • Flooding Imphal East [31 May] #3 : Gallery
  • Flooding Imphal East [31 May] #2 : Gallery
  • Flooding Imphal East [31 May] #1 : Gallery
  • S Nirupama @Miss Universe : Gallery
  • Protesters to Raj Bhavan [May 25]: Gallery
  • Human Chain @Airport road [May 26]: Gallery
  • Miss Shirui Pageant Contestant: Gallery
  • 48 hrs Bandh: protest security forces: Gallery
  • Protest Rally: Journalist harassment: Gallery
  • HSLC 2025: Full Result (Check Roll No)
  • HSLC 2025: Important Info & Grading System
  • HSLC 2025 : Compartmental candidates
  • HSLC 2025 : Comparative Statement
  • HSLC 2025 : Statistical Abstract
  • HSLC 2025 : District Pass Percentage
  • HSLC 2025 : Govt School Pass %
  • HSLC 2025 : Aided School Pass %
  • HSLC 2025 : Private School Pass %
  • People's Convention on 3rd May #2 : Gallery
  • Featured Front Page Photo 2025 #2: Gallery
  • Riya Khwairakpam : HSE Science Topper
  • Keisham Hannah : HSE Arts Topper
  • Warepam Lidia : HSE Commerce Topper
  • HSE 2025 Result : Science Full Result
  • HSE 2025 Result : Arts Full Result
  • HSE 2025 Result : Commerce Full Result
  • HSE 2025 Information / Abbreviation
  • HSE 2025 Topper : Science
  • HSE 2025 Topper : Arts
  • HSE 2025 Topper : Commerce
  • HSE 2025 : Pass Percentage
  • HSE 2025 : Result Abstract
  • HSE 2025 : Candidates with Highest Marks
  • Ougri Lirol :: Part 1 : Ooba Video
  • President's Rule in Manipur : 1967 - 2025
  • Downloadable Manipuri Calendar :: 2025